Electrochemical Heat Transfer System

ABSTRACT

A heat transfer system includes a working fluid and an electrochemical compressor. The working fluid is made up of a polar solvent that primarily acts as a condensable refrigerant and hydrogen that primarily acts as an electrochemically-active component. The electrochemical compressor includes an inlet fluidly coupled to an evaporator to receive the working fluid; an outlet fluidly coupled to a condenser; and one or more electrochemical cells electrically connected to each other through a power supply. Each electrochemical cell includes a gas pervious anode, a gas pervious cathode, and an electrolytic membrane disposed between and in intimate electrical contact with the cathode and the anode to pass the working fluid.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No.12/771,620, filed on Apr. 30, 2010 and entitled “Self-ContainedElectrochemical Heat Transfer System” and this application claimspriority to U.S. Application No. 61/305,410, filed on Feb. 17, 2010 andentitled “Electrochemical Heat Pump System for Cooling ElectronicComponents,” and to U.S. Application No. 61/347,428, filed May 23, 2010and entitled “Compact Cooling Systems Using ElectrochemicalCompression,” all of which are incorporated herein by reference in theirentirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The disclosed subject matter relates to a heat transfer system having anelectrochemical compressor.

BACKGROUND

The function of both heat transfer systems such as refrigeration cyclesand heat pumps is to remove heat from a heat source or reservoir at lowtemperature and to reject the heat to a heat sink or reservoir at hightemperature. While many thermodynamic effects have been exploited in thedevelopment of heat pumps and refrigeration cycles, the most populartoday is the vapor compression approach. This approach is sometimescalled mechanical refrigeration because a mechanical compressor is usedin the cycle.

Mechanical compressors account for approximately 30% of a household'senergy requirements and thus consume a substantial portion of mostutilities' base load power. Any improvement in efficiency related tocompressor performance can have significant benefits in terms of energysavings and thus have significant positive environmental impact. Inaddition, there are increasing thermal management problems in electroniccircuits, which require smaller heat pumping devices with greaterthermal management capabilities.

Vapor compression refrigeration cycles generally contain five importantcomponents. The first is a mechanical compressor that is used topressurize a gaseous working fluid. After proceeding through thecompressor, the hot pressurized working fluid is condensed in acondenser. The latent heat of vaporization of the working fluid is givenup to a high temperature reservoir often called the sink. The liquefiedworking fluid is then expanded at substantially constant enthalpy in athermal expansion valve or orifice. The cooled liquid working fluid isthen passed through an evaporator. In the evaporator, the working fluidabsorbs its latent heat of vaporization from a low temperature reservoiroften called a source. The last element in the vapor compressionrefrigeration cycle is the working fluid itself.

In conventional vapor compression cycles, the working fluid selection isbased on the properties of the fluid and the temperatures of the heatsource and sink. The factors in the selection include the specific heatof the working fluid, its latent heat of vaporization, its specificvolume and its safety. The selection of the working fluid affects thecoefficient of performance of the cycle.

SUMMARY

In some general aspects, a system includes a working fluid and anelectrochemical compressor. The working fluid includes a polar solventthat primarily acts as a condensable refrigerant and hydrogen thatprimarily acts as an electrochemically-active component. Theelectrochemical compressor includes an inlet fluidly coupled to anevaporator to receive the working fluid; an outlet fluidly coupled to acondenser; and one or more electrochemical cells electrically connectedto each other through a power supply. Each electrochemical cell includesa gas pervious anode, a gas pervious cathode, and an electrolyticmembrane disposed between and in intimate electrical contact with thecathode and the anode to pass the working fluid.

Implementations can include one or more of the following features. Forexample, the electrolytic membrane can include a solid electrolyte. Theworking fluid can also include water. The polar solvent and the watercan be a coexisting fluid that is transported with the hydrogen acrossthe electrolytic membrane.

The system can also include a condenser that transfers heat from a firstheat reservoir to the working fluid, an evaporator that transfers heatfrom the working fluid to a second heat reservoir, and an expansionvalve between the condenser and the evaporator that reduces pressure ofthe working fluid. The electrochemical compressor can be between thecondenser and the evaporator.

The polar solvent can include methanol. The mole fraction of hydrogen inthe working fluid can be less than or equal to about 0.10 and the molefraction of polar solvent in the working fluid can be between about0.55-0.75. The mole fraction of hydrogen in the working fluid can beless than or equal to about 0.05 by mass and the mole fraction of polarsolvent in the working fluid can be between about 0.60-0.80.

In another general aspect, heat is transferred using a working fluidthat is circulated through and contained within a closed loop byincreasing a pressure of at least hydrogen of the working fluid byoxidizing the hydrogen at an anode, conducting the oxidized hydrogenacross an electrolyte, and reducing the hydrogen at a cathode; andpropelling a mixture of a polar solvent and water with the hydrogenacross the anode, electrolyte, and cathode.

Implementations can include one or more of the following features. Forexample, heat can be transferred by conveying heat from a first heatreservoir at a relatively low temperature to a second heat reservoir atrelatively high temperature by circulating the working fluid through theclosed loop that is thermally coupled to the first heat reservoir at afirst portion and is thermally coupled to the second heat reservoir at asecond portion. The heat can be conveyed by transferring heat from atleast the polar solvent of the working fluid at the second loop portionto the second heat reservoir including liquefying at least some of thepolar solvent of the working fluid; reducing a pressure of the at leastpartially liquefied working fluid by expanding the working fluid at asubstantially constant enthalpy; and transferring heat from the firstheat reservoir to at least the polar solvent of the working fluid at thefirst loop portion including vaporizing at least some of the polarsolvent of the working fluid.

In another general aspect, a heat transfer system conveys heat from afirst heat reservoir at a relatively low temperature to a second heatreservoir at a relatively high temperature, the heat transfer systemdefining a closed loop that contains a working fluid, and at least partof the working fluid being circulated through the closed loop. The heattransfer system includes a working fluid that includes a polar solventthat primarily acts as a condensable refrigerant; and hydrogen thatprimarily acts as an electrochemically-active component; an evaporatorthat transfers heat from the first heat reservoir to the working fluid;a condenser that transfers heat from the working fluid to the secondheat reservoir; an expansion valve between the evaporator and thecondenser that reduces pressure of the working fluid; and anelectrochemical compressor between the evaporator and the compressor.The electrochemical compressor includes one or more electrochemicalcells electrically connected to each other through a power supply, eachelectrochemical cell comprising a gas pervious anode, a gas perviouscathode, and an electrolytic membrane disposed between and in intimateelectrical contact with the cathode and the anode through which theworking fluid is passed.

Implementations can include one or more of the following features. Forexample, the heat transfer system can also include a control system thatis connected to a power supply of the electrochemical compressor and toat least one sensor that senses a temperature associated with the firstheat reservoir.

The first heat reservoir can be an ambient environment within buildingat a relatively low temperature and the second heat reservoir can be anambient environment external to the building and at a relatively hightemperature.

The first heat reservoir can be an ambient environment internal to anair duct of a building and the second heat reservoir can be an ambientenvironment external to the air duct of the building.

The first heat reservoir can be a component of an integrated electroniccircuit and the second heat reservoir can be an ambient environmentaround the integrated electronic circuit.

The first heat reservoir can be a component of laser and the second heatreservoir can be an ambient environment around the laser.

The first heat reservoir can be an ambient environment internal to asealed cooler and the second heat reservoir can be an ambientenvironment external to the sealed cooler.

The first heat reservoir can be an ambient environment internal to afood storage container and the second heat reservoir can be an ambientenvironment external to the food storage container.

The first heat reservoir can be an ambient environment internal to apharmaceutical storage container and the second heat reservoir can be anambient environment external to the pharmaceutical storage container.

The first heat reservoir can be an ambient environment internal to asealed portable cooler and the second heat reservoir can be an ambientenvironment external to the sealed portable cooler.

The first heat reservoir can be an ambient environment internal to anair duct of a vehicle and the second heat reservoir can be an ambientenvironment external to the vehicle air duct.

DRAWING DESCRIPTION

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a self-contained heat transfer system thatdefines a closed loop that contains a working fluid and includes anelectrochemical compressor.

FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the self-contained heat transfer systemof FIG. 1.

FIG. 3 is an aligned cross-sectional view of an exemplary self-containedheat transfer system based on the design of FIGS. 1 and 2.

FIG. 4 is a side view of the heat transfer system of FIG. 3.

FIG. 5A is a plan view of a first portion of a housing of the heattransfer system of FIGS. 3 and 4.

FIG. 5B is an aligned side cross-sectional view taken along 5B-5B of thefirst portion of the housing of FIG. 5A.

FIG. 6A is a plan view of a second portion of the housing of the heattransfer system of FIGS. 3 and 4.

FIG. 6B is a side view of the second portion of the housing.

FIG. 6C is an aligned cross-sectional view taken along 6C-6C of thesecond portion of the housing of FIG. 6A.

FIG. 7 is a flow chart of a procedure for manufacturing the heattransfer system of FIGS. 3-6C.

FIGS. 8-11 are cross-sectional views of the housing portions andinternal components that demonstrate steps of the manufacturingprocedure of FIG. 7.

FIG. 12 is a perspective view of a plurality of self-contained heattransfer systems combined for use at distinct locations on a singledevice to be cooled.

FIG. 13 is a perspective view of a plurality of self-contained heattransfer systems, each system at a location on a respective device to becooled.

FIG. 14 is a perspective view of an annularly-shaped self-contained heattransfer system for cooling a cylindrically-shaped device.

FIG. 15 is a perspective view of a plurality of annularly-shapedself-contained heat transfer systems for cooling at distinct locationsof a single cylindrically-shaped device.

FIGS. 16-18 are electrical block diagrams of exemplary configurations ofthe power supply with a plurality of heat transfer systems.

FIGS. 19-21 are perspective views showing the application of the heattransfer systems of FIGS. 1-18.

DESCRIPTION

Referring to FIG. 1, an exemplary electrochemical heat transfer system100 is used to convey heat from a first heat reservoir 102 at arelatively low temperature to a second heat reservoir 104 at arelatively high temperature. The heat transfer system 100 can beconsidered to be self-contained since it constitutes a complete andindependent unit in and of itself including all necessary components tofunction as a heat transfer system with merely a connection to a powersupply 106. The power supply 106 can be a source of direct currentelectric power such as a battery or a rectifier or any other electricsource capable of delivering direct current.

The heat transfer system 100 is designed in some implementations withina hermetically-sealed housing 108 having an internal enclosure that isimpervious to fluids outside the housing 108. The heat transfer system100 is sized proportionally to a required cooling capacity and the sizeand shape of the system 100 is also be determined by the size and shapeof the first heat reservoir. The heat transfer system 100 defines withinits internal enclosure a closed loop that contains a working fluid(which is represented by the block arrows in FIG. 1).

The heat transfer system 100 is an electrochemical system in that itincludes an electrochemical compressor 110 within its internalenclosure. The electrochemical compressor 110 lacks moving parts andreceives all of its energy from the power supply 106.

The heat transfer system 100 includes a first heat transfer device 112that transfers heat from the first heat reservoir 102 (which is any heatsource or object to be cooled) to the working fluid, a second heattransfer device 114 that transfers heat from the working fluid to thesecond heat reservoir 104 (which is a heat sink), and an expansion space116 fluidly linking the first and second heat transfer devices. Thefirst heat transfer device 112 includes an evaporator that acts as aheat exchanger that places the working fluid in a heat exchangerelationship with the first heat reservoir 102. The second heat transferdevice 114 includes a condenser that acts as a heat exchanger thatplaces the working fluid in a heat exchange relationship with the secondheat reservoir 104.

To enable the heat transfer, the first heat transfer device 112 has anexposed surface that is configured to be in thermal communication withthe first heat reservoir 102 and the second heat transfer device 114 hasan exposed surface that is configured to be in thermal communicationwith the second heat reservoir 104. The exposed surface of either orboth of the heat transfer devices 112, 114 can be an exposed surface ofthe housing 108; in such a design, the wall of the housing 108 with theexposed surface is a thermally-conductive wall that would be considereda part of the respective heat transfer device so that the housing wallis an integral part of the heat transfer. The heat transfer devices 112,114 can also include portions that are within the enclosure, so thatthey extend from exposed surface inward toward the compressor 110.

The expansion space 116 is an orifice or opening that controls theamount of working fluid flow. The expansion space 116 can include atemperature sensing bulb filled with a similar gas as in the workingfluid that causes a valve to open against the spring pressure in thevalve body as the temperature on the bulb increases. As the temperaturein the first heat transfer device 112 decreases, so does the pressure inthe bulb and therefore on the spring causing the valve to close.

The power supply 106 is controlled by a control system 118, which isconnected to at least one sensor that measures or estimates atemperature of the first heat reservoir 102. In this way, the controlsystem 118 provides closed-loop control of the operation of the powersupply 106 and therefore the amount of cooling provided by the system100 based on the temperature of the first heat reservoir 102. Thecontrol system 118 can also be connected to a sensor that measures orestimates an operating pressure of the compressor 105.

The working fluid contained within the closed loop of the heat transfersystem 100 includes at least a first component, the primary purpose ofwhich is to be electrochemically active and therefore take part in theelectrochemical process within the compressor 110 and at least a secondcomponent, the primary purpose of which is to act as a condensablerefrigerant and therefore perform a heat transfer function in the closedloop. The first component (the electrochemically-active component) couldalso provide, as a secondary purpose, a heat transfer function in theclosed loop. Thus, the electrochemically-active component could alsoundergo a transformation as it is transferred between the first heattransfer device 112 and the second heat transfer device 114, suchtransformation can include a phase change, though a phase change is notnecessary to fulfill the heat transfer function. Additionally, thesecond component (the condensable refrigerant) could also provide, as asecondary purpose, an electrochemical function within the compressor110.

One particularly suitable first component is hydrogen. While hydrogen isbeing used primarily as the electrochemically active component of theworking fluid, hydrogen also possesses useful heat transfer properties.Hydrogen's low density, high specific heat, and thermal conductivitymake it an acceptable coolant. Thus, the presence of hydrogen gas withinthe working fluid enhances the performance of the condensablerefrigerant; and provides thermal exchange opportunities at points awayfrom thermally conductive surfaces of the fluid conduits and the heattransfer devices. Suitable second components include, for example, polarfluids such as methanol, ethanol, butanol, or propanol, which also canserve as a secondary purpose an electrochemical function.

Additionally, the working fluid can include a third component such aswater to hydrate an ion exchange membrane within the compressor 110 (asdiscussed below). Water can be considered a contaminant of some standardrefrigerants, and it can negatively impact heat exchange performance ofthe refrigerant. Thus, water as a component of the working fluid can bereduced for example, to a minimal amount that is needed to provideenough hydration to one or more components of the compressor 110.

In some implementations, the first component (which is electrochemicallyactive) includes hydrogen (H₂) and the second component (which is acondensable refrigerant) includes methanol. In this implementation, allcomponents would be able to pass through the compressor 110, though somemay not engage fully in electrochemical activity. The relativeproportions of hydrogen and methanol are governed by the desiredrelative efficiency of the electrochemical compressor 110 and the system100. The quantity of any water maintained in the working fluid isgoverned by the thickness of membranes employed in the compressor 110,the equivalent weight (acidity) of the ion exchange media employed inthe compressor 110, and the amount of hydrogen in the system 100.Thinner membranes of higher equivalent weight (that is, lower acidity)employed in systems with lower proton capability require less water. Ingeneral, the working fluid includes less than 50% of water by mass, butcan include less than 20% of water by mass, less than 10% of water bymass, or less than 1% of water by mass, depending on the application.

In one particular implementation, the working fluid is made of less thanor equal to about 0.10 mole fraction of hydrogen, between about0.55-0.75 mole fraction of polar solvent (such as methanol), and betweenabout 0.15-0.45 mole fraction of water. In other implementations, theworking fluid is made of less than or equal to about 0.05 mole fractionof hydrogen, between about 0.50-0.70 mole fraction of polar solvent(such as methanol), and between about 0.25-0.50 mole fraction of water.The selection of the relative amounts of the components of the workingfluid can be adjusted. In general, the system 100 needs enough hydrogento pump the methanol through the system 100 and enough water to keep theelectrolyte of the compressor 110 wet, but other than these tworequirements, the percentage of hydrogen and water within the workingfluid can be kept as low as possible.

In particular, the coefficient of performance (COP) for the heattransfer system 100 increases as the relative amount of hydrogen in theworking fluid is reduced. For example, for a working fluid that iscomposed of 0.038 mole fraction of hydrogen, 0.76 mole fraction ofmethanol, and 0.20 mole fraction of water, a compressor 105 operating ata pressure of about 2 bar and a temperature of about 161 C, an inputpower of 1.13 kW applied to the compressor 105, and an output power of10.31 kW, the COP can reach 9.0. The COP is also impacted by theoperating pressure of the compressor 105; so that by reducing the inputpower to the compressor 105 and therefore reducing the operatingpressure of the compressor, the COP of the system 100 increases.

Hydrogen as the electrochemically active component is a thermal fluidwith higher thermal conductivity than other gases. Additionally,hydrogen has a root-mean-square (RMS) velocity that is 4-6 times that oftypical refrigerants at room temperature. Because of these two features,hydrogen can readily transfer energy to other components of the workingfluid such as the methanol and water. Moreover, hydrogen gas has a muchlower viscosity than other refrigerants and provides for highlyefficient gas compression.

The choice of the refrigerant depends on the exact application underconsideration and other external regulatory factors. Care should betaken in the selection of the refrigerant to ensure that the refrigerantdoes not degrade the electrochemical performance of the system or poisonthe electrocatalyst employed in the compressor 110.

Generally, the refrigerant used in the working fluid should have goodthermodynamic properties, be noncorrosive, stable, and safe. The desiredthermodynamic properties are at a boiling point somewhat below thetarget temperature, a high heat of vaporization, a moderate density inliquid form, a relatively high density in gaseous form, and a highcritical temperature. Since boiling point and gas density are affectedby pressure, refrigerants can be made more suitable for a particularapplication by choice of operating pressure. The refrigerant can beelectrochemically active, in which case it could take part inelectrochemical compression.

The electrochemical compressor 110 is a device that raises the pressureof at least one component of the working fluid by an electrochemicalprocess. Accordingly, at least one component of the working fluid mustbe electrochemically active. In particular, the electrochemically activecomponent (the first component) must be ionizable. For example, theelectrochemically active component is oxidized at a gas pervious anode120 of the compressor 110 and is reduced at a gas pervious cathode 122of the compressor 110.

In the implementation of FIG. 1, the compressor 110 includes only oneexemplary cell. However, the electrochemical compressor 110 can includea plurality of electrochemical cells, as shown in FIGS. 3A-C of U.S.application Ser. No. 12/626,416, filed Nov. 25, 2009 and entitled“Electrochemical Compressor and Refrigeration System,” which isincorporated herein by reference in its entirety. In someimplementations, the electrochemical compressor 110 is an annular stackof electrochemical cells electrically connected in series such as, forexample, the cells generally described in U.S. Pat.. No. 2,913,511(Grubb); in U.S. Pat. No. 3,432,355 (Neidrach); and in U.S. Pat. No.3,489,670 (Maget).

The compressor 110 includes an electrolyte 124 that serves to conductthe ionic species (EC⁺) from the anode 120 to the cathode 122. Theelectrolyte 124 can be an impermeable solid ion exchange membrane havinga porous microstructure and an ion exchange material impregnated throughthe membrane such that the electrolyte 124 can withstand an appreciablepressure gradient between its anode and cathode sides. The examplesprovided here employ impermeable ion exchange membranes, and theelectrochemically active component of the working fluid is remixed withthe working fluid after compression and thus the pressure of the workingfluid is elevated prior to the condensation phase of the refrigerationprocess. However, a permeable ion exchange membrane is also feasiblewith the working fluid traversing in a unidirectional and sequentialpath through electrode assemblies with increasing pressure. The activecomponents of the working fluid dissolve into the ion exchange media ofthe ion exchange membrane and the gas in the working fluid traversesthrough the ion exchange membrane.

As another example, the electrolyte 124 can be made of a solidelectrolyte, for example, a gel, that is, any solid, jelly-like materialthat can have properties ranging from soft and weak to hard and toughand being defined as a substantially dilute crosslinked system thatexhibits no flow when in the steady-state. The solid electrolyte can bemade very thin, for example, it can have a thickness of less than 0.2mm, to provide additional strength to the gel. Alternatively, the solidelectrolyte can have a thickness of less than 0.2 mm if it is reinforcedwith one or more reinforcing layers like a polytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE) membrane (having a thickness of about 0.04 mm or less) dependingon the application and the ion exchange media of the electrolyte.

Each of the anode 120 and the cathode 122 can be an electrocatalyst suchas platinum or palladium or any other suitable candidate catalyst. Theelectrolyte 124 can be a solid polymer electrolyte such as Nafion(trademark for an ion exchange membrane manufactured by the I.E. DuPontDeNemours Company) or GoreSelect (trademark for a composite ion exchangemembrane manufactured by W.L. Gore & Associates Inc.). The catalysts(that is, the anode 120 and the cathode 122) are intimately bonded toeach side of the electrolyte 124. The anode 120 includes an anode gasspace (a gas diffusion media) 126 and the cathode 122 includes a cathodegas space (a gas diffusion media) 128. The electrodes (the anode 120 andthe cathode 122) of the compressor 110 can be considered as theelectrocatalytic structure that is bonded to the solid electrolyte 124.The combination of the electrolyte 124 (which can be an ion exchangemembrane) and the electrodes (the anode 120 and the cathode 122) isreferred to as a membrane electrode assembly or MEA.

Adjacent the anode gas space 126 is an anode current collector 130 andadjacent the cathode gas space 128 is a cathode current collector 132.The anode collector 130 and the cathode collector 132 are electricallydriven by the power supply 106 through respective meshes 134, 136. Theanode collector 130 and the cathode collector 132 are porous,electronically conductive structures that can be woven metal screens(also available from Tech Etch) or woven carbon cloth or pressed carbonfiber or variations thereof. The pores in the current collectors 130,132 serve to facilitate the flow of gases within the gas spaces 126, 128adjacent to the respective electrodes 120, 122.

As mentioned, outer surfaces of the collectors 130, 132 can beelectrically connected to and pressed against respective meshes 134,136, which are electrically connected to respective outputs 138, 140 ofthe power supply 106. If the meshes 134, 136 are not used, then theoutputs 138, 140 would be directly connected to the collectors 130, 132.The meshes 134, 136 are electrically conductive structures having poresthat are generally larger than the pores of the collectors 130, 132. Themeshes can be woven metal screens, woven carbon cloth, or pressed carbonfiber. The meshes 134, 136 also provide structural support to thecompressor 110.

Additionally, subassemblies of components of the electrochemicalcompressor or cells (if the compressor includes a plurality of cells)can be commercially obtained from manufacturers such as W.L. Gore &Associates Inc. under the PRIMEA trademark or Ion Power Inc.Commercially available assemblies are designed for oxygen reduction onone electrode and therefore the electrodes (the anode 120 and cathode122) may need to be modified for hydrogen reduction.

Hydrogen reduction at the cathode 122 actually requires lower loadingsof precious metal catalysts and also is feasible with alternative lowercost catalysts such as palladium. Thus, the eventual production costs ofassemblies employed in the system 100 are substantially lower thantypical fuel cell components.

As mentioned above, the control system 118 is coupled to one or moretemperature sensors placed near the first heat reservoir 102 to monitoror measure the temperature of first heat reservoir 102. Additionally,the control system 118 sends a signal to the power supply 106 to controlan amount of power to drive the electrochemical compressor 110 based atleast in part on the feedback obtained from the temperature sensors. Thecontrol system 118 can be a general system including sub-components thatperform distinct steps.

The control system 118 can include one or more of digital electroniccircuitry, computer hardware, firmware, and software. The control system118 can also include appropriate input and output devices, a computerprocessor, and a computer program product tangibly embodied in amachine-readable storage device for execution by a programmableprocessor. A procedure embodying these techniques may be performed by aprogrammable processor executing a program of instructions to performdesired functions by operating on input data and generating appropriateoutput. Generally, a processor receives instructions and data from aread-only memory and/or a random access memory. Storage devices suitablefor tangibly embodying computer program instructions and data includeall forms of non-volatile memory, including, by way of example,semiconductor memory devices, such as EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memorydevices; magnetic disks such as internal hard disks and removable disks;magneto-optical disks; and CD-ROM disks. Any of the foregoing may besupplemented by, or incorporated in, specially-designed ASICs(application-specific integrated circuits).

The control system 118 receives information from the one or moretemperature sensors and controls operation of a procedure that caneither maintain the heat source or the heat sink at a relativelyconstant temperature condition. Additionally, controlling the operationof the electrochemical compressor 110 consists of turning its current onor off through the power supply 106. Alternatively, the voltage appliedto the electrochemical compressor 110 can be set to be in proportion tothe heat source fluid temperature or the heat sink fluid temperature (iffluids are used in the heat source or heat sinks) In some applications,such as electric cars without internal combustion engines, there may bean advantage in operating the vehicle air conditioning systemelectrically and driving each wheel independently without a centralmotor (required to drive the air conditioning system).

Referring also to FIG. 2, the hermetically-sealed housing 108 isdesigned with two portions 250, 252, each portion 250, 252 including oneor more walls including at least one thermally-conductive wall. Theportions 250, 252 are each designed with an internal opening or cavityto receive the compressor 110 and the respective meshes 134, 136, asshown below in the exemplary system shown in FIG. 3. The two portions250, 252 are sized and shaped to mate with each other at an interface254. At least one of the portions 250, 252 includes an opening 256through which the working fluid is initially inserted into theenclosure.

The closed loop is formed such that the working fluid passes through theexpansion space 116, then through a cavity in the first heat transferdevice 112 (which is within the first housing portion 250), through theelectrochemical compressor 110, then through a cavity in the second heattransfer device 114 (which is within the second housing portion 252),and back to the expansion space 116. Heat is transferred using theworking fluid as it is circulated through and contained within theclosed loop of the heat transfer system 100.

Low pressure (that is, unpressurized) working fluid (which can be amixture of hydrogen, methanol, and water) enters the compressor 110after it exits the expansion space 116.

If the working fluid includes a condensable refrigerant that does notengage in electrochemical activity, then the electrochemically activecomponent(s) (such as hydrogen and water) is dissociated from thecondensable refrigerant. In this case, the electrochemically activecomponent(s) dissolve into the ion exchange media while the condensablerefrigerant is diverted along a path separate from the electrochemicalpath through the membrane electrode assembly.

In any case, the electrochemically active component(s) is pumped acrossthe membrane electrode assembly of the compressor 110. In particular,electrons are stripped from the component(s) at the anode collector 130,and the ions are transported across the anode 120, the electrolyte 124,and toward the cathode 122 due to the electrical potential appliedacross the collectors 130, 132 from the power supply 106. Next, the ionsare recombined with the electrons at the cathode collector 132 to reformthe gas at a higher pressure.

Thus, the electrochemical compressor 110 raises the pressure of theworking fluid and delivers the higher pressure working fluid to thesecond heat transfer device 114, where the condensable refrigerant isprecipitated by heat exchange with the sink fluid. The working fluid isthen reduced in pressure in the expansion space 116. Subsequently, thelow pressure working fluid is delivered to the first heat transferdevice 112 where the condensed phase of the working fluid is boiled byheat exchange with the source fluid. The effluent working fluid withinthe first heat transfer device 112 may be partially in the gas phase andpartially in the liquid phase when it is returned to the electrochemicalcompressor 110. In the process, heat energy is transported from thefirst heat transfer device 112 (the evaporator) to the second heattransfer device 114 (the condenser) and consequently, from the heatsource at a relatively lower temperature to the heat sink at relativelyhigher temperature.

In particular, if the electrochemically-active component is hydrogen andthe condensable refrigerant is methanol and water is included as a thirdcomponent of the working fluid, then electrons are stripped from thehydrogen at the anode collector 130, and the remaining ions (protons)are transported across the anode 120, the electrolyte 124, and towardthe cathode 122. The protons from the hydrogen act like a propellantthat mixes with the methanol and water to drag or pull the methanol andwater across the electrolyte 124 and toward the cathode 122, and theprotons are recombined with electrons at the cathode collector 132 toreform hydrogen gas at a higher pressure and at a relatively warmertemperature.

Concurrently, the control system 118 controls the amount of electricalpotential applied to the current collectors 130, 132 of the compressor110, and therefore also controlling the amount of heat energytransported from the evaporator to the condenser. The control system 118receives information from the one or more sensors at the heat reservoir102 or at the heat reservoir 104 indicating physical characteristics atkey locations. The control system 118 analyzes the information anddetermines whether physical properties of the heat transfer system 100need to be adjusted based on the analyzed information. For example, thecontrol system 118 can determine that a current applied to thecompressor 110 (and therefore the current applied to the electrodecollectors 130, 132) needs to be adjusted. As another example, thecontrol system 118 can determine that a flow rate of one or more of theheat sink fluid and the heat source fluid that transport heat from andto the devices 112, 114 needs to be adjusted. If the control system 118determines that a physical property of the system 100 should beadjusted, then the control system 118 sends a signal to the componentthat is affected to adjust the particular property. For example, thecontrol system 118 can send a signal to the power supply 106 to adjustthe amount of current applied to the current collectors 130, 132 in thecompressor 110. Otherwise, the control system 118 continues to receiveinformation from the one or more sensors.

Referring to FIGS. 3 and 4, an exemplary heat transfer system 300 isdesigned with the features of the system 100 in that the system 300 is aself-contained electrochemical heat transfer system formed between andfrom first and second housing portions 350, 352. The first and secondhousing portions 350, 352 can be made of any thermally conductivematerial such as aluminum, zinc, gold, alloys of metals, orthermally-conductive polymers. The first and second housing portions350, 352 receive an electrochemical compressor 310 sandwiched between afirst heat transfer device 312 and a second heat transfer device 314.For simplicity, the electrochemical compressor 310 is shown in blockform in FIG. 3; however, the compressor 310 includes all of thecomponents that make up the compressor 110 shown in FIG. 1 and describedabove. The first and second heat transfer devices 312, 314 arerespectively housed in and incorporated in the first and second housingportions 350, 352, which are joined along an interface 354. The secondhousing portion 352 also includes an opening 356 that is sealed with asuitable sealant such as epoxy after working fluid is introduced intothe cavity formed between the portions 350, 352.

Referring also to FIGS. 5A and 5B, the first housing portion 350includes an opening 500 for receiving the output 338 from the powersupply 106. The first housing portion 350 also includes an opening 316Athat is one half of the expansion space, the other half formed from anopening 316B (shown in FIGS. 3, 6A, and 6C) within the second housingportion 352. The opening 316A is aligned with the opening 316B when thehousing portions 350, 352 are pressed together, as shown in FIG. 3.

The first housing portion 350 also includes one or more channels 504that fluidly connect the opening 316A with a cavity 508 that is sizedand shaped to receive the mesh 334, the working fluid, and at least partof the electrochemical compressor 310. The first housing portion 350includes a thermally-conductive wall 512 that defines a surface 518 thatis exposed to the first heat reservoir. The thermally-conductive wall512 is an integral part of a first heat transfer device 312. Thethermally-conductive wall 512 of the first heat transfer device 312 alsoincludes an inner surface having protrusions 520 (only one of which islabeled in each of FIGS. 5A and 5B for simplicity) that are separated bygaps or spaces 522 (only one of which is labeled in each of FIGS. 5A and5B for simplicity) through which the working fluid flows. The mesh 334makes physical contact with the protrusions 520 when the housingportions 350, 352 are pressed together. Much of the working fluid likelyvaporizes within the spaces 522 since the spaces 522 are theareas/regions that place the working fluid the closest in distance tothe first heat reservoir.

Referring also to FIGS. 6A-6C, the second housing portion 352 includesan opening 600 for receiving the output 340 from the power supply 106.The second housing portion 352 also includes the opening 316B that isone half of the expansion space. The opening 316B aligns with theopening 316A when the housing portions 350, 352 are pressed together, asshown in FIG. 3.

The second housing portion 352 also includes one or more channels 604that fluidly connect the opening 316B with a cavity 608 that is sizedand shaped to receive the mesh 336, the working fluid, and at least partof the electrochemical compressor 310. The second housing portion 352includes an opening 656 through which the working fluid is initiallyinserted into the enclosure; the opening 656 is a through opening thatextends from an exterior of the portion 352 to the opening 316B.

The second housing portion 352 includes a thermally-conductive wall 612that defines a surface 618 that is exposed to the second heat reservoir.The wall 612 can be shaped, as shown in FIGS. 4 and 6B, with fins toincrease the area of the surface 618 exposed to the second heatreservoir. The thermally-conductive wall 612 is an integral part of asecond heat transfer device 314. The thermally-conductive wall 612 ofthe second heat transfer device 314 also includes an inner surfacehaving protrusions 620 (only one of which is labeled in each of FIGS. 6Aand 6C for simplicity) that are separated by gaps or spaces 622 (onlyone of which is labeled in each of FIGS. 6A and 6C for simplicity)through which the working fluid flows. The mesh 336 makes physicalcontact with the protrusions 620 when the housing portions 350, 352 arepressed together. Much of the condensable portion of the working fluidlikely condenses within the spaces 622 since the spaces 622 are theareas/regions that place the working fluid the closest in distance tothe second heat reservoir.

Referring to FIG. 7, a procedure 700 is performed to manufacture theself-contained heat transfer system 300. Initially the first housingportion 350 is prepared (step 710) and the second housing portion 352 isprepared (step 720). Each of the housing portions 350, 352 can beprepared by any suitable method, such as, for example, die casting eachof the housing portions 350, 352. In die casting, molten metal is forcedunder high pressure into mold cavities (which are machined into dies)and then permitted to cool before being removed. The die casting methodis especially suited in this application since a large quantity of smallto medium sized parts may be needed with good detail, a fine surfacequality, and dimensional consistency. In other implementations, thehousing portions 350, 352 are machined from blanks into the appropriategeometries. For example, the cavities 508, 608 and the openings 316A, Bcan be machined into respective blanks In some implementations, it ispossible to use both methods of die casting and machining to form thehousing portions 350, 352.

The shapes of the housing portions 350, 352 are determined based in parton the heat transfer application and the geometries of the heatreservoirs. For example, if the first heat reservoir has a planar shape(such as shown in FIGS. 12 and 13), then the housing portions 350, 352would have planar shapes. As another example, if the first heatreservoir has a cylindrical shape (such as shown in FIGS. 14 and 15),then the housing portions 350, 352 would have annular shapes.

Next, the electrochemical compressor 310 is inserted between the firstand second housing portions 350, 352 (step 730) and the housing portions350, 352 are combined or pressed together with the compressor 310positioned partly within each of the cavities 508, 608 (step 740), asshown in FIG. 8. After the housing portions 350, 352 are pressedtogether (step 740), the housing portions 350, 352 are hermeticallysealed at the interface 354 (step 750).

In some implementations, as shown in FIG. 9A, the housing portions 350,352 are soldered or welded 900 around the perimeter of the interface 354to provide the hermitic seal. In this implementation, it is alsopossible to subsequently saturate the interface 354 after it has beensoldered or welded 900 with a suitable adhesive such as epoxy. In otherimplementations, as shown in FIG. 9B, the housing portions 350, 352 arejoined at aligned flanges 950, 952 using suitable connectors (such asbolts and nuts, not shown) and the hermetic seal is provided along anO-ring or a gasket 960 provided in a groove 970 around one or more ofthe housing portions 350, 352.

Next, the working fluid is inserted into the cavity or enclosure formedwithin the housing portions 350, 352 (step 760). For example, as shownin FIG. 10, the working fluid 1000 is inserted through the opening 356.After the enclosure is filled with the working fluid (step 760), theremaining openings of the housing portions 350, 352 are hermeticallysealed (step 770). For example, as shown in FIG. 11, the openings 500,600 are sealed with a suitable adhesive 1100 such as epoxy or solder,and the opening 356 is sealed with a suitable adhesive 1110 such asepoxy.

The heat transfer systems described herein offer a system thatintegrates all of the components required to implement heat transfer,such as the electrochemical compressor, a gas mixing device at an outputof the compressor (which is needed for a multi-component working fluidhaving a component that bypasses the compressor), a power connection,and heat transfer devices into a single housing to provide small workingdevices. Such small working devices are therefore inherently modular andself contained. These systems can be made for a wider range of heattransfer applications, for example, for both small and large heattransfer applications. Systems employed in a heat transfer applicationcan be of different sizes and there is no limitation to how many can beused in a particular application.

In general, in operation of the system 100, the working fluid, which isa cool liquid mixture of the methanol and water and the hydrogen gas,circulates in internal engineered channels (that is, the gaps or spaces522) between the first heat reservoir 102 (which is the item to becooled) and the compressor 110 and the working fluid absorbs the heatfrom the reservoir 102. Above the engineered channels, theelectrochemical compressor 110 absorbs the working fluid, including theliquid mixture of the methanol and the water and the hydrogen gas, andtransports the working fluid to the other side, pressuring the workingfluid. The pressure of the hydrogen exiting the compressor 110 is aboveatmospheric pressure. Next, the slightly pressurized working fluids fromthe compressor 110 release energy to the second heat reservoir 104(which can be the ambient environment) at the second heat transferdevice 114 (which in the example shown above is a high surface-area heatexchanger). The slightly pressurized working fluids (which is a mixtureof the methanol and water fluid and the hydrogen gas) that exits thesecond heat transfer device 114 is conveyed through the expansion space116, which can be an orifice, where it expands and cools down.

For example, as shown in FIGS. 12-15, the heat transfer systems can becombined to provide the specific cooling or heating requirementsdepending on the geometry of the device(s) to be cooled. Thus, in FIG.12, each heat transfer system 1200, 1210, 1220, 1230 is placed at adistinct location on a surface 1240 of a device 1250 to be cooled andbecause the device to be cooled is planar, the heat transfer systems areplanar. In FIG. 13, each planar heat transfer system 1300, 1310, 1320 isplaced on surfaces 1330, 1340, 1350 at respective distinct devices 1332,1342, 1352 that is part of a master system that has a planar shape. InFIG. 14, a single annular heat transfer system 1400 is in thermalcommunication with a surface 1410 of a cylindrically-shaped device 1420to cool the cylindrically-shaped device 1420. While in FIG. 15, threeannular heat transfer systems 1500, 1510, 1520 are placed in thermallycommunication at distinct locations on a surface 1530 of acylindrically-shaped device 1540 to be cooled.

Any of the devices to be cooled shown in FIGS. 12-15 could be componentsof an integrated electronic circuit or of a laser such as a laser diode.In these cases, the first heat reservoir would be the component itselfand the second heat reservoir would be an ambient environment around thecomponent.

The heat transfer systems can be operated together or separately forspecific applications requirements. In some implementations, as shown inFIG. 16, a plurality of heat transfer systems 1600, 1610, 1620 isconnected in parallel with a power supply 1630. In otherimplementations, as shown in FIG. 17, a plurality of heat transfersystems 1700, 1710, 1720 is connected in series with a power supply1730. In yet other implementations, as shown in FIG. 18, each heattransfer system 1800, 1810, 1820 is connected to a respective powersupply 1830, 1840, 1850. Each of the power supplies 1630, 1730, 1830,1840, 1850 can be controlled by a control system such as the controlsystem 118 shown in FIG. 1.

The energy efficiency of the self-contained heat transfer systemdescribed herein depends on the available electrode (anode and cathode)surface area, and the applied current density and operating voltage ofthe electrochemical compressor.

The self-contained heat transfer systems are able to be integratedbecause the electrochemical compressor used is reduced in size whencompared with prior compressors used in heat transfer applications. If aheat transfer application requires more significant size reductions, theelectrode surfaces (the surfaces of the anodes and cathodes) can bereduced even more, the applied current densities and voltages can beincreased, and a smaller compressor can be employed. This would resultin an almost order of magnitude reduction in size and weight for theheat transfer system compared to conventional mechanical systems.

Since cooling capacity is linked to applied current and voltage, oneadvantage of the self-contained heat transfer system is that it canmodulate from low capacity (that is, low current density at a specificvoltage) to a high capacity relatively easily. A heat transfer systemdesigned to operate at high capacities actually becomes more efficientat lower utilizations, while, the exact opposite is true for mechanicalsystems. Similarly, in a modular configuration, power can be provided tosome of the self-contained heat transfer systems (or units), and notothers to, for example maintain lower levels of cooling capability.

This feature would allow, for example, refrigerators and other devicesto split their cooling capabilities (and even compartment temperatures)without sacrificing system efficiency. For example, a vegetable rack ofa refrigerator could be kept at a different temperature than the toprack for liquids. Thus, a control system would operate at two levels;individual units can be controlled, as well as a whole body of units canbe controlled for optimum cooling effect for a specific application.

In some applications, such as in electric cars, individual areas of thevehicle can be kept at different temperatures (such as a driver areaversus passenger areas) with controls provided to specific seatingareas.

As discussed above, controlling the operation of an electrochemicalcompressor within the self-contained heat transfer system consists ofturning its current on or off. Alternatively, one can schedule thevoltage applied to the electrochemical compressor in proportion to thesource or the sink fluid temperature.

In some implementations, the heat transfer system includes, though doesnot necessarily require, one or more one-way valves at the output of theelectrochemical compressor. The one-way valve can be any mechanicaldevice, such as a check valve, that normally allows fluid (liquid orgas) to flow through it in only one direction (the direction of thearrows). The valves ensure proper delivery of the components of theworking fluid that exit the electrochemical compressor into the rest ofthe heat transfer system by reducing or avoiding back-pressure into theelectrochemical compressor, and therefore ensure unidirectional flow ofthe fluids (which include gases).

In other implementations, hydrogen can be used in a multi-componentworking fluid that also includes a condensable refrigerant such as apolar fluid that bypasses electrochemical compression. In this case, thehydrogen would be compressed by the compressor 110 to a much higherpressure than the final working fluid pressure, and would then mix withthe lower pressure component of the working fluid (the one that bypassesthe compressor 110). The exact pressure requirements for the hydrogenstream depends on the volume of condensable component being pressurizedin relation to the volume of hydrogen, the desired final pressurerequirements of the mixed stream, and the targeted energy efficiency. Insome implementations, check valves can be employed to make sure the gasflows are maintained in the intended directions and that no back flow isallowed towards the compressor 110.

Referring to FIG. 19, in one implementation, one or more heat transfersystems 1900 are set up to provide cooling to a building through anopening 1905 such as a window of the building. In this implementation,each system 1900 is arranged so that the thermally-conductive wall 1980of the first housing portion of the system 1900 makes thermal contactwith the first heat reservoir 1902, which, in this implementation, is anambient environment within the building. Additionally, thethermally-conductive wall 1990 of the second housing portion of eachsystem 1900 makes thermal contact with the second heat reservoir 1904,which in this implementation, is an ambient environment external to thebuilding.

One or more power supplies 1906 are electrically connected to each ofthe electrochemical compressors within each system 1900 and one or morecontrol systems 1918 are configured to receive information from sensorsthat sense a temperature of the ambient environment 1902 or that senseother characteristics of the system 1900 and to send signals to thepower supplies 1906 based on the received information.

Referring to FIG. 20, in another implementation, one or more heattransfer systems 2000 are set up to provide cooling to a building or toa vehicle by cooling the air that travels through air ducts 2005 withinthe building or the vehicle. In this implementation, each system 2000 isarranged so that the thermally-conductive wall 2080 of the first housingportion of the system 2000 makes thermal contact with the first heatreservoir 2002, which, in this implementation, is an ambient environmentinternal to the air duct 2005. Additionally, the thermally-conductivewall 2090 of the second housing portion of the system 2000 makes thermalcontact with the second heat reservoir 2004, which, in thisimplementation, is an ambient environment external to the air duct 2005.One or more power supplies 2006 are electrically connected to each ofthe electrochemical compressors within each system 2000 and one or morecontrol systems 2018 are configured to receive information from sensorsthat sense a temperature of the ambient environment 2002 or that senseother characteristics of the system 2000 and to send signals to thepower supplies 2006 based on the received information.

Referring to FIG. 21, in another implementation, one or more heattransfer systems 2100 are set up to provide cooling to an inside of acontainer 2105 such as a sealed cooler, a food storage container, apharmaceutical storage container, or a sealed portable cooler. In thisimplementation, each system 2100 is arranged so that thethermally-conductive wall 2180 of the first housing portion makesthermal contact with the first heat reservoir 2102, which, in thisimplementation, is an ambient environment internal to the container2105. Additionally, the thermally-conductive wall 2190 of the secondhousing portion of the system 2100 makes thermal contact with the secondheat reservoir 2104, which in this implementation, is an ambientenvironment external to the container 2105. One or more power supplies2106 are electrically connected to each of the electrochemicalcompressors within each system 2100 and one or more control systems 2118are configured to receive information from sensors that sense atemperature of the ambient environment internal to the container 2105 orthat sense other characteristics of the system 2100 and to send signalsto the power supplies 2106 based on the received information.

Other implementations are within the scope of the following claims.

1. A system comprising: a working fluid comprising a polar solvent otherthan water that primarily acts as a condensable refrigerant and hydrogenthat primarily acts as an electrochemically-active component; and anelectrochemical compressor including: an inlet fluidly coupled to anevaporator to receive the working fluid; an outlet fluidly coupled to acondenser; and one or more electrochemical cells electrically connectedto each other through a power supply, each electrochemical cellcomprising a gas pervious anode, a gas pervious cathode, and anelectrolytic membrane disposed between and in intimate electricalcontact with the cathode and the anode to pass the working fluid.
 2. Thesystem of claim 1, wherein the electrolytic membrane comprises a solidelectrolyte.
 3. The system of claim 1, wherein the working fluidcomprises water.
 4. The system of claim 3, wherein the polar solvent andthe water are a coexisting fluid that is transported with the hydrogenacross the electrolytic membrane.
 5. The system of claim 1, furthercomprising: a condenser that transfers heat from a first heat reservoirto the working fluid, an evaporator that transfers heat from the workingfluid to a second heat reservoir, and an expansion valve between thecondenser and the evaporator that reduces pressure of the working fluid,wherein the electrochemical compressor is between the condenser and theevaporator.
 6. The system of claim 1, wherein the polar solventcomprises methanol.
 7. The system of claim 1, wherein the mole fractionof hydrogen in the working fluid is less than or equal to about 0.10 andthe mole fraction of polar solvent in the working fluid is between about0.55-0.75.
 8. The system of claim 1, wherein the mole fraction ofhydrogen in the working fluid is less than or equal to about 0.05 bymass and the mole fraction of polar solvent in the working fluid isbetween about 0.60-0.80.
 9. A method of transferring heat using aworking fluid that is circulated through and contained within a closedloop, the method comprising: increasing a pressure of at least hydrogenof the working fluid by oxidizing the hydrogen at an anode, conductingthe oxidized hydrogen across an electrolyte, and reducing the hydrogenat a cathode; and propelling a mixture of a polar solvent other thanwater and water with the hydrogen across the anode, electrolyte, andcathode.
 10. The method of claim 9, further comprising: conveying heatfrom a first heat reservoir at a relatively low temperature to a secondheat reservoir at relatively high temperature by circulating the workingfluid through the closed loop that is thermally coupled to the firstheat reservoir at a first portion and is thermally coupled to the secondheat reservoir at a second portion, the conveying comprising:transferring heat from at least the polar solvent of the working fluidat the second loop portion to the second heat reservoir includingliquefying at least some of the polar solvent of the working fluid;reducing a pressure of the at least partially liquefied working fluid byexpanding the working fluid at a substantially constant enthalpy; andtransferring heat from the first heat reservoir to at least the polarsolvent of the working fluid at the first loop portion includingvaporizing at least some of the polar solvent of the working fluid. 11.A heat transfer system that conveys heat from a first heat reservoir ata relatively low temperature to a second heat reservoir at a relativelyhigh temperature, the heat transfer system defining a closed loop thatcontains a working fluid, at least part of the working fluid beingcirculated through the closed loop, the heat transfer system comprising:a working fluid that comprises a polar solvent other than water thatprimarily acts as a condensable refrigerant; and hydrogen that primarilyacts as an electrochemically-active component; an evaporator thattransfers heat from the first heat reservoir to the working fluid; acondenser that transfers heat from the working fluid to the second heatreservoir; an expansion valve between the evaporator and the condenserthat reduces pressure of the working fluid; and an electrochemicalcompressor between the evaporator and the compressor, theelectrochemical compressor comprising one or more electrochemical cellselectrically connected to each other through a power supply, eachelectrochemical cell comprising a gas pervious anode, a gas perviouscathode, and an electrolytic membrane disposed between and in intimateelectrical contact with the cathode and the anode through which theworking fluid is passed.
 12. The heat transfer system of claim 11,further comprising a control system that is connected to a power supplyof the electrochemical compressor and to at least one sensor that sensesa temperature associated with the first heat reservoir.
 13. The heattransfer system of claim 11, wherein the first heat reservoir is anambient environment within building at a relatively low temperature andthe second heat reservoir is an ambient environment external to thebuilding and at a relatively high temperature.
 14. The heat transfersystem of claim 11, wherein the first heat reservoir is an ambientenvironment internal to an air duct of a building and the second heatreservoir is an ambient environment external to the air duct of thebuilding.
 15. The heat transfer system of claim 11, wherein the firstheat reservoir is a component of an integrated electronic circuit andthe second heat reservoir is an ambient environment around theintegrated electronic circuit.
 16. The heat transfer system of claim 11,wherein the first heat reservoir is a component of a laser and thesecond heat reservoir is an ambient environment around the laser. 17.The heat transfer system of claim 11, wherein the first heat reservoiris an ambient environment internal to a sealed cooler and the secondheat reservoir is an ambient environment external to the sealed cooler.18. The heat transfer system of claim 11, wherein the first heatreservoir is an ambient environment internal to a food storage containerand the second heat reservoir is an ambient environment external to thefood storage container.
 19. The heat transfer system of claim 11,wherein the first heat reservoir is an ambient environment internal to apharmaceutical storage container and the second heat reservoir is anambient environment external to the pharmaceutical storage container.20. The heat transfer system of claim 11, wherein the first heatreservoir is an ambient environment internal to a sealed portable coolerand the second heat reservoir is an ambient environment external to thesealed portable cooler.
 21. The heat transfer system of claim 11,wherein the first heat reservoir is an ambient environment internal toan air duct of a vehicle and the second heat reservoir is an ambientenvironment external to the vehicle air duct.
 22. A heat transfer systemcomprising: a working fluid comprising a polar solvent other than waterthat primarily acts as a condensable refrigerant and hydrogen thatprimarily acts as an electrochemically-active component; and anelectrochemical compressor that includes an inlet that is fluidlycoupled to an evaporator to receive the working fluid, an outlet that isfluidly coupled to a condenser to output the working fluid, and anelectrolyte between the inlet and the outlet through which the workingfluid passes; wherein the mole fraction of hydrogen in the working fluidis adjusted to be as low as possible but high enough to pump the polarsolvent through the electrochemical compressor such that a coefficientof performance of the heat transfer system is greater than
 4. 23. Theheat transfer system of claim 22, wherein the electrolyte is a solidelectrolyte.
 24. The heat transfer system of claim 22, wherein theworking fluid comprises water.
 25. The heat transfer system of claim 24,wherein the polar solvent and the water are a coexisting fluid that istransported with the hydrogen across the electrolyte.
 26. The heattransfer system of claim 22, wherein the polar solvent comprisesmethanol.